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Mizrahi Jews
Mizrahi Jews ( Yehudim Mizrahim), also known as Mizrahis ( Mizrahim, Mashriqiyyun) in short are Jews descended from local communities of the Middle East. The Hebrew word Mizrah ''( ), which coincides with the Arabic term ''Mashriq ( ), meaning "east" is most commonly used in Israel to refer to Jews who trace their roots back to Arab or Muslim countries. Furthermore, some even reclassify the whole Israeli Jewish society as "Mizrahi" as compared with the Western Jews of Europe and the Americas, which are Ashkenazi or ethnic Sephardi Jews. They are also referred to as Adot HaMizrach ( '' Communities of the East'') Mizrahi Jews from Arab nations who retain fluency in Arabic are known as Musta'arabi Jews, which literally "Arabized Jews" ( Yehudim Mista'Arevim, al-Yahud Musta'aribun) and "Arab Jews" by pan-Arab nationalists, particularily Iraqi Jews. Etymology and Usage The use of the term Mizrahi can be somewhat controversial. Before the establishment of the state of Israel, Mizrahi Jews did not identify themselves as a separate ethnic subgroup. Instead, Mizrahi Jews generally characterized themselves as Sephardi, because they follow the traditions of Sephardic Judaism (although with some differences among the minhagim of the particular communities). This has resulted in a conflation of terms, particularly in Israel, and in religious usage, where "Sephardi" is used in a broad sense to include Mizrahi Jews and Maghrebi Jews as well as Sephardim proper. Indeed, from the point of view of the official Israeli rabbinate, any rabbis of Mizrahi origin in Israel are under the jurisdiction of the Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel. Today Sephardic rite make up more than half of Israel's Jewish population, and Mizrahi Jews proper are a major part of them. Before the mass immigration of 1,000,000 from the former Soviet Union, mostly of Ashkenazi rite, followers of the Sephardic rite made up over 70% of Israel's Jewish population.[2] "Mizrahi" is literally translated as "Eastern", מזרח (Mizraḥ), Hebrew for "east." In the past the word "Mizrahim," corresponding to the Arabic word Mashriqiyyun ( literally meaning "Easterners"), referred to the natives of Syria, Iraq and other Asian countries, as distinct from those of North Africa (Maghribiyyun). In medieval and early modern times the corresponding Hebrew word ma'arav was used for North Africa. In Talmudic and Geonic times, however, this word "ma'arav" referred to the land of Israel as contrasted with Babylonia. For this reason many object to the use of "Mizrahi" to include Moroccan and other North African Jews. The term Mizrahim or Edot Hamizraḥ, Oriental communities, grew in Israel under the circumstances of the meeting of waves of Jewish immigrants from the Europe, North Africa, Middle East and Central Asia, followers of Ashkenazi, Sephardic and Yemenite rites. In modern Israeli usage, it refers to all Jews from Central and West Asian countries, many of them Arabic-speaking Muslim-majority countries. The term came to be widely used more by so-called Mizrahi activists in the early 1990s. Since then in Israel it has become an accepted semi-official and media designation. Interestingly, most of the "Mizrahi" activists were actually originated from North African Jewish communities, traditionally called "Westerners" (Maghrebi), rather than "Easterners" (Mashreqi). Many Jews originated from Arab and Muslim countries today reject "Mizrahi" (or any) umbrella description and prefer to identify themselves by their particular country of origin, or that of their immediate ancestors, e.g. "Moroccan Jew", or prefer to use the old term "Sephardic" in its broader meaning. History Iraq, Egypt, Yemen and Iran were the jewels of Mizrahi presence in the Middle East prior to the mass exodus of Jews from Muslim lands following the 1948 creation. A lot of the presence came before the Arab and Islamic invasion of those nations, let alone Yemen which was already inhabited and populated by native South Arabians. Alot of Jewish scholars, particularily in Egypt produced Judaic texts and commenataries written in the Arabic language using a modified form of the Hebrew-Aramaic block script. 'Yemenite Jews' Yemenite Jews are debatably Mizrahi, although many argue that their ethnic classification it outside of the main three groupings of Jewish ethnicities. Judaism is one of the many monotheistic religions that thrived in Yemen or South Arabia before Islam. Unlike the situation with the Jews in the other Middle Eastern nations (which were not Arab nations at the time such as Iraq or Egypt), Judaism was known for attractive large groups of native South Arabian converts who favored the simplicity of worshipping one God rather than many. The three most significant ancient Yemenite kingdoms were Himyar ( ), Qataban ( ) and Saba ( ) all with thriving Jewish communities. Saba is thought by many to be the land known in the Bible as Sheba ( ). Arab converts to Judaism were likely common during the reign of Israelite King Solomon, who exerted influence onto foreigners including that of Arabs and Ethiopians. Sheba was ruled by an unnamed monarch of some prominence, known as the Queen of Sheba ( ) - who was either a native Yemenite (according to Arabs) or a native Cushite from the Horn of Africa (according to Ethiopians). The Queen of Sheba was one of the many foreigners the visited King Solomon of Israel. She is known as Bilquis ( ) in Arab and Islamic sources. The Himyarite Kingdom's leaders were known to be sadistic converts to Judaism such as the Himyarite king Abu Kariba ( ). The Himyarites fought against the African Christian Axumite kingdom, especially under the leadership of a Yemenite Jewish warlord by the name of Yusuf Dhu Nuwas ( ). During the ministry of Moses Maimonides (an Arabic-speaking Sephardic Jew), he wrote the Epistle to Yemen ( ) during a time of religious persecution during the Muslim rule. Most of Yemen's Jews were deported at this point. The teachings of Maimonides are very important to sections of Yemenite Jews, some consider themselves "Rambamists", taken from Maimonides' Hebrew acronym RaMBaM ( ). There were several Yemenite Jewish scholars, including Jacob ben Nathanael. One of the most famous and important Yemenite Jewish poets was Shalom Shabazi ( , ). He compose thousands of poems, written in Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic (the traditional languages of Yemenite Jews), and is considered a national poet of Yemen. In 1948, the Yemenite Jews were airlifted to Israel via a secret mission known as Operation Magic Carpet. The Yemenite Jews weren't fully assimilated, like their other Mizrahi counterparts (if one considers Yemenite to be Mizrahi). Today, Yemenite Jews are proud of their culture - and it remains popular in Israeli society. Countless numbers of famous Israeli singers of Yemenite Jewish descent such as Dana International, Eyal Golan, Zion Golan, Shoshana Damari and the late Ofra Haza were catalysts to popularizing Yemenite culture. Many of these singers even sing Arabic songs which extended their popularizes beyond Israel and into the Arab World. However, people in Arab nations often find themselves obtaining their music illegally since many Arab nations, since it is illegal in those countries. The ancient Yemenite Jewish kingdoms are regarded as being ancient Arab states, or "Arab Jewish" states and tribes. However, Yemenite Jews today do not consider themselves to be Arab and the overwhelming majority lives in Israel with less than 100 living in Yemen. 'Iraqi Jews' The Jews in Iraq, who are known commonly as Babylonian Jews ( Yehudim Bavlim) in Biblical sources or Iraqi Jews ( Yahūd al-ʿIrāq) is documented from the time of the Babylonian captivity c. 586 BC. Iraqi Jews constitute one of the world's oldest and most historically significant Jewish communities. The Jewish community of Babylon included Ezra the scribe ( ), whose return to Judea in the late 6th century BC is associated with significant changes in Jewish ritual observance and the rebuilding of the Temple in Jerusalem. The Talmud was compiled in Babylonia, identified with modern Iraq. From the Babylonian period to the rise of the Islamic caliphate, the Jewish community of Babylon thrived as the center of Jewish learning. The Mongol invasion and Islamic discrimination in the Middle Ages led to its decline. Under the Ottoman Empire, the Jews of Iraq fared better. The community established modern schools in the second-half of the 19th century. In the 20th century, Iraqi Jews played an important role in the early days of Iraq's independence, but the Iraqi Jewish community, numbered at around 120,000 in 1948, almost entirely left the country due to persecution following the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. Most of them fled to the newly founded state of Israel, and today, fewer than 100 Jews remain in Iraq. Ovadia Yosef ( ), one of Israel's most prominent chief rabbis was born in Iraq as an Arabic-speaking Iraqi Jew under the name Abdullah Yusuf ( ). 'Egyptian Jews' Like the Iraqi Jews, Egyptian Jews also constitute both one of the oldest, historical and youngest Jewish communities in the world. Jewish presence in Egypt is found predominant throughout Old Testament times, to the Roman era and after Alexander the Great's conquest and through the Islamic period. Although the Book of Genesis and Book of Exodus describe a period of Hebrew servitude in ancient Egypt, more than a century of archaeological research has discovered nothing which could support its narrative elements— the four centuries sojourn in Egypt, the escape of well over a million Israelites from the Delta, or the three months journey through the wilderness to Sinai.James Weinstein, "Exodus and the Archaeological Reality", in Exodus: The Egyptian Evidence, ed. Ernest S. Frerichs and Leonard H. Lesko (Eisenbrauns, 1997), p.87 The history of the Alexandrian Jews dates from the foundation of the city by Alexander the Great, 332 BCE, at which they were present. They were numerous from the very outset, forming a notable portion of the city's population under Alexander's successors. The Jewish community of Alexandria was virtually wiped out by Trajan's army during the Jewish revolt of 115–117 CE, which destroyed pagan temples. The Jews of Egypt also produced lots of literature, Judeo-Arabic literature during the Arab rule. The Arab invasion of Egypt at first found support not only from Copts, and other Christians, but from Jews as well, all disgruntled by the corrupt administration of the Patriarch Cyrus of Alexander, notorious for his Monotheletic proselytizing. In addition to the Jews settled there from early times, some must have come from the Arabian Peninsula. The letter sent by Muhammad to the Jewish Banu Janba in 630 is said by Al-Baladhuri to have been seen in Egypt. A copy, written in Hebrew characters, has been found in the Cairo Geniza. Many of the Egyptian Jews followed a conservative section of Judaism known as the Karaite movement, or Karaite Judaism ( Yahadut Qara'it). This particular section of Judaism originated from Iraq, and its adherents are strict followers of the Torah alone, and do not accept outside works such as the Talmud to be divinely inspired. Saladin's war with the Crusaders (1169–93) does not seem to have affected the Jews in his kingdom. A Karaite doctor, Abu al-Bayyan al-Mudawwar (d. 1184), who had been physician to the last Fatimid, treated Saladin also. Abu al-Ma'ali, brother-in-law of Maimonides, was likewise in his service. In 1166 Maimonides went to Egypt and settled in Fostat, where he gained much renown as a physician, practising in the family of Saladin and in that of his vizier al-Qadi al-Fadil|Ḳaḍi al-Faḍil al-Baisami, and Saladin's successors. The title Ra'is al-Umma or al-Millah (Head of the Nation or of the Faith), was bestowed upon him. In Fostat, he wrote his Mishneh Torah (1180) and The Guide for the Perplexed, both of which evoked opposition from Jewish scholars. From this place he sent many letters and responsa; and in 1173 he forwarded a request to the North-African communities for help to secure the release of a number of captives. The original of the last document has been preserved. He caused the Karaites to be removed from the court. Saadia ben Yousef ( ) or better known by his title Saadia Gaon ( ) was a prominent Jewish scholar from Egypt who wrote extensively in the Arabic language (although using Hebrew script). Musta'arabi Jews consider him the father of Judeo-Arabic literature. Dawood Hosni ( ), one of Egypt's more famous musicians and the mentor to future Egyptian singers like Umm Kulthum, was born to a Karaite Jewish family in Cairo. 'Iranian/Persian Jews' Judaism is among the oldest religions practiced in Iran and the Biblical Book of Esther contains references to the experiences of the Jews in Persia. Jews have had a continuous presence in Iran since the time of Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid Empire. Cyrus invaded Babylon and freed the Jews from Babylonian captivity. According to the Bible, three times during the 6th century BCE, Nebuchadnezzar exiled the Jews (Hebrews) of the ancient Kingdom of Judah to Babylon. These three separate occasions are mentioned in Jeremiah (52:28–30). The first exile was in the time of Jehoiachin in 597 BCE, when the Temple of Jerusalem was partially despoiled and a number of the leading citizens removed. After eleven years (during the reign of Zedekiah), a fresh rising of the Judaeans occurred. Jerusalem was razed to the ground, and deportation ensued. Finally, five years later, Jeremiah recorded a third captivity. Cyrus ordered rebuilding the Second Temple in the same place as the first; however, he died before it was completed. Darius the Great came to power in the Persian empire and ordered the completion of the temple. According to the Bible, the prophets Haggai and Zechariah urged this work. The temple was ready for consecration in the spring of 515 BCE, more than twenty years after the Jews' return to Jerusalem. With the Islamic conquest of Persia, the government assigned Jews, along with Christians and Zoroastrians, to the status of dhimmis, non-Muslim subjects of the Islamic empire. Dhimmis were allowed to practice their religion, but were required to pay jizya to cover the cost of financial welfare, security and other benefits that Muslims were entitled to (jizya, a poll tax, and initially also kharaj, a land tax) in place of the zakat, which the Muslim population was required to pay. Like other Dhimmis, Jews were exempt from military draft. Viewed as "People of the Book", they had some status as fellow monotheists, though they were treated differently depending on the ruler at the time. On the one hand, Jews were granted significant economic and religious freedom when compared to their co-religionists in European nations during these centuries. Many served as doctors, scholars, and craftsman, and gained positions of influence in society. On the other hand, like other non-Muslims, they did not work in Sharia Law since they did not have the obvious knowledge and qualifications for it. Language Modern Hebrew Prior to the creation of the state, Mizrahi Jews only used Hebrew inside the temple, and as a means of prayer. It is opposite today. Most Mizrahi Jews today speak Modern Hebrew, since the current mostly reside in Israel. Upon Israel's creation as a state, Jews migrating from Arab and Muslim lands underwent a period of assimilation, dropping their Arabic names and adopting Hebrew names and teaching their kids in a strict Hebrew-speaking society. Mizrahi Hebrew usually is different from the Hebrew spoken by Ashkenazi Jews (European Jews) in Israel. Mizrahi Hebrew contains lots of Arabic-pronounciation while those spoken by the Ashkenazis have a Yiddish, German and Russian sub-stratum. The reason for this was for the tendancy of descendants of Mizrahi migrants from Arab nations to have exposure to spoken Arabic. 'Arabic' Arabic is still spoken by some Mizrahi elders mostly those who are migrants from the Arab World themselves. Like Hebrew, Arabic is a Semitic language and is Israel's second official state language. Before Israel's creation as a state, most Mizrahi Jews spoke the dialect known as Judeo-Arabic, which developed within the Jewish communities living in Arab territory, or those conquered by the Arabs. The Jews who spoke Arabic as a native language were known as Musta'arabi Jews, or "Arabized Jews". Other than speaking Arabic, they also bore Arabic names, and only used Hebrew references and names inside the temple. They also wrote their literature in the Arabic language, the best known surviving works of Jewish literature written in Arabic were those of Saadia Gaon from Egypt, and Maimonides of Islamic Spain - one of the world's most revered Jewish philosophers. However, after the exodus of Jews from Arab territory (mostly to France and Israel), their children were not tought Judeo-Arabic, and the language ceased to continue being used in the modern days. Most Mizrahis and Sephardis in France or Israel only speak Hebrew or French which now designates Judeo-Arabic as an endangered language. Like the nature of the Arabic language, Judeo-Arabic was also split into different dialects itself, depending on the region. As of 1995, there are approximately 60,000 speakers of the Yemeni dialect of Judeo-Arabic, specifically the Sana'a and Aden dialect. About 50,000 live in Israel and about 1,000 continue to live in Yemen. 'Persian and Kurdish' Many Mizrahi elders who are descendent from Iran or live inIran speak Judeo-Persian or Judeo-Kurdish, both Indo-Iranic languages. There are 60,000 speakers of Judeo-Persian living in Israel. 'Writing Script' While Arabic, Persian and Kurdish are mainly written using the Arabic script (being languages of predominantly Muslim nations), the dialects spoken by the Mizrahi Jews in those lands were written in the Hebrew script, a modified form of the Aramaic block script. The Hebrew script for Judeo-Arabic developed from Jewish communities living in lands conquered by Muslims and Arabs - who wrote Classical Arabic in the Hebrew script. Saadia Gaon successfully translated copies of the Torah from Hebrew to Judeo-Arabic. Maimonides wrote the Epistle to Yemen, addressing the Yemenite Jews, as well The Guide to the Perplexed in Judeo-Arabic as well. Often times, Mizrahi Jews in Arab territory were well-educated and familiar with both Arabic and Judeo-Arabic, and knew how to write the language in both Arabic and Hebrew script. Outside of the Jewish community, these Jews used the Arabic script and within the Jewish community they'd use the Hebrew script. 'Language in Mizrahi and Israeli Culture' Moshe Katsav, a former president of Israel, born an Iranian Jew as Musa Qasab - still retains his fluency in the Persian language. Arabic is an official state language in Israel alongside Hebrew. In the modern days, many Israeli Jewish artists and musicians whose ancestors migrated from Arab territory have been trying to recover the elements of Arab influence in Mizrahi culture such as Dana International (actual name is Sharon Cohen) and the late Ofra Haza are both of Yemenite Jewish ancestry, and Zehava Ben of Moroccan Jewish ancestry sing songs in Hebrew and Arabic, among other languages as well. However, Moroccan Jews are either rejected or accepted as being part of the Mizrahi group. Accepted due to the fact that Morocco is an Arab nation, but rejected due to Morocco being a western Arab nation and Moroccan Jews belong to the bigger group known as the Maghrebi Jews, in which "Maghreb" means "west" in Arabic and Hebrew which is the opposite of Mashriq or Mizrah meaning "east". Many of the songs of these mentioned artists, especially those sung in Arabic, are popular in the Arab World there it is illegal in many countries such as Egypt or Yemen. Cuisine Jews of the Mizrahi communities cook foods that were and are popular in their home countries, while following the laws of kashrut. The cuisine is based largely on fresh ingredients, as marketing was done in the local shuk. Meat is ritually slaughtered in the shehita process, and is soaked and salted. Meat dishes are a prominent feature of sabbath, festival, and celebratory meals. Cooked, stuffed and baked vegetables are central to the cuisine, as are various kinds of beans, chickpeas, lentils and burghul (cracked wheat). Rice takes the place of potatoes. Falafel, a famous Arab dish was brought to Israel both by Mizrahi Jews from Arab lands as well as the presence of Palestinian Arabs in the region. It is accompanied by a dip known as hummus, albeit both have become national snacks of Israel as they would be in Lebanon. Hot sahlab, a liquidy cornstarch pudding originally flavored with orchid powder (today invariably replaced by artificial flavorings), is served in cups as a winter drink, garnished with cinnamon, nuts, coconut and raisins. Arak from the Anis drinks family, is the preferred alcoholic beverage. Rosewater is a common ingredient in cakes and desserts. Malabi, a cold cornstarch pudding, is sprinkled with rosewater and red syrup. Ikaddaif or kadaif is a very sweet pastry similar in style and technique to baklavah. It consists of shredded dough, which is wrapped around crushed nuts, baked and then soaked in syrup. It is common in various parts of the Middle East and is served at festive meals. Notable Mizrahi Jews or Jews Descended from Middle East Sources Category:Jews Category:Arab Jews Category:Mizrahi Hebrew Category:Mizrahis Category:Mizrahi Jews Category:Jews from Arab lands Category:Yemenite Hebrew Category:Yemenite Jews Category:Iraqi Jews Category:Babylonian Jews Category:Babylonian captivity Category:Ezra Category:Book of Ezra Category:Ezra the Scribe Category:Nehemiah Category:Judeo-Arabic Category:Judeo-Kurdish Category:Judeo-Arabic literature Category:Arabic language Category:Arabic Category:Classical Hebrew Category:Judeo-Persian Category:Judaism Category:Torah Category:Talmud Category:Ovadia Yosef Category:Nouriel Roubini Category:Moshe Katsav Category:Dalia Itzhik Category:Eyal Golan Category:Boaz Mauda Category:Nasser Khalili Category:Saadia Gaon Category:Harel Skaat Category:Amnon Yitzhak Category:Sabra Category:Olim Category:Abdullah Yusuf Category:Jews from Central Asia Category:Modern Hebrew Category:Hebrew language Category:Mizrahi music Category:Zehava Ben Category:Queen of Sheba Category:Sheba Category:Saba Category:Makea Category:Makeda Category:Bilquis Category:King Solomon Category:Geshem the Arab Category:Aliyah Category:Third Aliyah Category:Adot HaMizrach Category:Mashriq Category:Kosher Category:Kashrut Category:Shabbat Category:Sabbath Category:Falafel Category:Hummus Category:Arabic speaking people Category:Syrian Jews Category:Lebanese Jews Category:Arabian Jews Category:Bahraini Jews Category:Mountain Jews Category:Yafa Yarkoni Category:Leila Mourad Category:Naeim Giladi Category:Salima Pasha Category:Sassoon Eskell Category:Musa Qasab